Although native to North America, the wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo ) is not native to California.  This bird has been successfully introduced in the state by the California Department of Fish and Game for hunting purposes.  Wild turkeys are omnivorous and may potentially impact threatened and endangered native species, which the CDFG is charged by law to protect.  Annadel State Park in Sonoma County is a focal point for studying the potential impacts of wild turkeys on imperiled plants and animals.  Data for the eastern part of Annadel State Park were gathered and analyzed to determine whether wild turkeys are occupying the same habitats as federally listed species there.  Results were inconclusive, and a suggestion for further field surveying was made.  It was also recommended that additional wild turkey introductions be curtailed until research on their impacts is completed.

    The California Department of Fish and Game (CDFG) is responsible for protecting and preserving California native species and their habitats.  At the same time, the CDFG is tasked with managing wildlife for hunting and fishing enthusiasts.  In some cases, these responsibilities can conflict.  One such case is that of the wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo ).

    The wild turkey is not native to California, although fossil records indicate that a relative of the contemporary turkey was present here over 10,000 years ago.  Turkeys are native to North America, and the six subspecies of Meleagris gallopavo  have an historical range from southern Ontario across the Midwest down to southern Mexico, and from the Rockies east to the Atlantic coast.

    Since the late 1800's, there have been numerous attempts to introduce the wild turkey in California, almost exclusively for game purposes.  Most of the early attempts failed to produce viable populations.  However, the CDFG has been successful in introducing the wild turkey to many parts of California since the late 1950's.  The CDFG has introduced, and to some extent manages, wild turkeys in California for hunting purposes, and has plans to introduce more wild turkeys in the future with the hope of establishing viable, reproducing flocks in more parts of the state.

    Wild turkeys are omnivores, with a diet consisting mainly of grasses and herbaceous plant leaves, as well as seeds, berries, and acorns.  In addition, turkeys will eat insects, reptiles, and amphibians.  Wild turkeys predominantly inhabit oak and pine-oak forests near open space in their native range, and have followed that trait here, where they can be found in the coastal ranges and the Sierra foothills.

    Because the wild turkey is not native to California, other species here have not evolved to cope with it in their environments.  Turkeys, with their voracious feeding habits, have the potential for feeding on endangered species of plants, reptiles, and amphibians.  As the CDFG is the State of California's stewards for these endangered species, it is contrary to its mission to be introducing into the environment a non-native animal that could increase the peril to endangered plants and animals that are native to this state.

    While wild turkeys have not been released on state park lands, in some areas flocks have moved into a park and established themselves.  This is problematic because hunting is not allowed on park lands, but park officials are responsible for protecting and maintaining the natural resources within the park boundaries.  Turkey flocks can wreak havoc with the efforts of park personnel to manage endangered and threatened species within their domain.

    At present, wildlife biologists do not know whether or not wild turkeys feed on endangered or threatened native species.  This lack of knowledge would indicate that the CDFG should proceed with caution.  The first step in assessing whether wild turkeys potentially impact native species is to determine if the different species occupy the same area, and can thus come into contact.  This project looks at one area of the state, Annadel State Park, to determine whether wild turkeys are occupying the same habitat as a number of federally listed species there.

    Species data was gathered from the California Natural Diversity Database and the California Wildlife Habitat Relationships System.  Other spatial data was obtained from the CDFG GIS library.  A field survey was undertaken to gather coordinates for the observed locations of wild turkeys at Annadel State Park.  A hand held Global Positioning System device was used to capture coordinates.  These data were combined and analyzed in the ArcMap GIS application.

    There are two species of wild turkeys in North America: Meleagris ocellata  and Meleagris gallopavo , which has six subspecies.  Meleagris ocellata  is found in southern Mexico and Central America.  The Florida turkey (M. g. osceola ) is found only in Florida.  The Rio Grande turkey (M. g. intermedia ) is native to Texas and northeastern Mexico.  The Eastern wild turkey (M. g. silvestris ) is native to the deciduous forests of the eastern United States, from Louisiana to New England.  The Merriam's turkey (M. g. merriami ) is native to the Rocky Mountains and northern New Mexico and Arizona.  The Gould's turkey (M. g. mexicana ) is native to western Mexico and southern Arizona and New Mexico.  The Mexican turkey (M. g. gallopavo ) was domesticated by native Mexicans prior to the arrival of Europeans, and was the progenitor of most of the domesticated birds today.  However, this last subspecies is considered extinct (Lewis 1973, Gardner 2002).

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    In the La Brea tar pits of Southern California, fossil bones of another species of bird that is related to contemporary turkeys have been found.  These fossils date back to the late Pleistocene Epoch, over 11,000 years ago, and have been identified as the species Parapavo californicus .  Parapavo is considered to be closer genetically to Meleagris ocellata  than Meleagris gallopavo .  There is no definitive evidence to suggest that a species of Meleagris gallopavo  existed in California at any point in the past (Schorger 1966).

    The wild turkey is the largest game bird in North America, and reaches its full size in about two years.  Turkeys in the wild can live up to nine years, but the average life span is much less.  In the Spring, after mating, hens will typically lay a clutch of ten to twelve eggs which hatch in 27 to 28 days.  The poults will start to feed soon after hatching.  In the first few weeks, their primary diet consists of insects and the green leaves of plants.  The poults grow quickly, and approach adult size by late Fall or early Winter (Lewis 1973).

    Wild turkeys are omnivores, with a diet that varies depending upon the season.  In Spring, the diet consists of herbaceous plant leaves, as well as seeds and berries.  Hens will consume snails to add calcium to their intake for eggshell production.  In Summer, the adult turkey eats mainly grasses, berries, and insects.  Insects account for about 10% of the diet.  In Fall, acorns and nuts account for a larger part of the diet.  During the winter, turkeys will eat whatever they can get: pine needles, moss, acorns, tubers, and tree buds.  Around a spring or seep, they may find snails, worms, crayfishes, salamanders, or aquatic insects (Lewis 1973).  Although the majority of their diet is plant material, turkeys will eat insects, small reptiles, and amphibians, such as lizards, salamanders, and tadpoles.  They will also eat crustaceans, such as crayfish and crabs.  Poults, in particular, will consume a large number of insects, chiefly grasshoppers, as a ready source of protein to support their fast growth (Schorger 1966).

    Natural predators of wild turkeys are bobcats, foxes, coyotes, hawks, owls, and eagles.  These predators will primarily attack the poults, not the adult turkeys.  Raccoons, skunks, opossums, snakes, crows, ravens, bears, minks, rats, and ground squirrels will eat the eggs if they find them unattended or are able to drive off the nesting hen (Lewis 1973).

    Wild turkey habitat typically contains a mix of trees and open grassland.  The grasslands provide a place where turkeys can forage for grasses, small herbaceous plants, and insects, while staying alert for predators.  Trees provide cover and food (Gardner 2002).  Merriam's turkey has a preference for pine or pine-oak woodlands.  Rio Grande turkey commonly inhabits oak woodlands (Schorger 1966).  At night, turkeys roost in trees.  They developed this behavior as a means of protection.  They are able to feel the vibrations in the tree limbs caused by any predator attempting to sneak up on the sleeping flock.  Only owls, which are able to glide in silently under the cover of darkness, pose a serious threat to a roosting flock (Lewis 1973).

    The first attempt to introduce turkeys in California was in 1877 when twelve wild turkeys from Mexico were released on Santa Cruz Island.  This attempt was apparently successful because nine years later large numbers of turkeys were reported on the island, although they were smaller in size than the originally introduced birds.  Other attempts at introduction were made during this time period; about 1,240 wild turkeys from Mexico were released in California between 1888 and 1918 (Schorger 1966).

    Around 1913, the California Fish and Game Commission released a total of 216 wild turkeys in the lower Sierra Nevada region and in San Diego, San Bernardino, Monterey, San Benito, Alameda, Sonoma, Shasta, and Humboldt counties.  In 1929, wild turkeys from Arizona were released in northwestern Napa County, as well as Humboldt, Shasta, and Sonoma counties.  In subsequent years, many more turkeys, both wild and domestic hybrids, were released in different parts of the state (Schorger 1966).

    By 1951, over 3,000 turkeys had been released throughout the state, but there were only four locations where the birds had established successful populations.  These sites contained 90 percent of the wild turkeys in California, which was estimated to be 1,410 to 1,665 birds (Schorger 1966).  Three of the established populations were in San Luis Obispo, Sonoma, and Santa Clara counties.  These birds were a hybrid of Mexican, Merriam's, and domestic turkeys, and were raised in game farms (Gardner 2002).

    During the next ten years, the California Department of Fish and Game released both Merriam's turkeys and Rio Grande turkeys in Tulare and San Diego counties.  These birds were true wild turkeys and not farm-raised hybrids.  As such, the newly released turkeys were able to establish viable populations within a couple of years.  The advent of new trapping technology has allowed the CDFG to make several more releases of wild turkeys from other states.  Most of these were Rio Grande turkeys, but some were Merriam's turkeys.  The Rio Grande turkeys have become established in lower elevation oak woodlands throughout the state, probably because of seasonally-arid conditions that are similar to those of its native range.  The Merriam's turkeys have been released into higher elevation pine habitats, much like its native ponderosa pine habitat (Gardner 2002).

    Although the success rate of introduction has not been as great as that of the Rio Grande turkey, the Merriam's turkey has established several viable populations, mostly in the northern Coast Range, the Sierras, and the San Bernardino Mountains.  The most recent release of wild turkeys by the CDFG was in 1999, when 424 of the Merriam's subspecies were released at 13 locations in the state.  A recent proposal to release around 300 Merriam's turkeys at six sites around the state – El Dorado, Plumas, Sierra, Lassen, Mendocino, and Shasta counties – was put on hold due to public criticism of the environmental impact report and opposition from the California Department of Parks and Recreation, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service, and several environmental groups (Gardner 2002, Tempest 2003).

    The introduction of wild turkeys in California, first by private individuals and later by the California Department of Fish and Game, has been done solely for the purpose of providing a game bird for the state's hunters.  Since wild turkeys are not native to California, these efforts cannot be seen as an attempt to restore a species to its native habitat.

    From an ecological standpoint, the problem with introducing this bird, as with any exotic species, is that native California species of plants, insects, reptiles, and amphibians have not evolved alongside it in the same environment.  This leaves these organisms with no evolutionary defense mechanisms designed to cope specifically with wild turkeys.  There is also the possibility that, with burgeoning flocks of wild turkeys spreading throughout the state, the introduced bird will start to out-compete native birds for food resources.

    Due to their size and their omnivorous appetite, there is a risk that wild turkeys will prey on the state's endangered and threatened species.  Much of the introduced bird's current range contains state and federally listed plants, insects, reptiles, and amphibians.  While there have been no comprehensive dietary studies of the wild turkey in California, there is historical evidence that turkeys eat many of the same types of species as the listed ones (Schorger 1966).  Dr. Reginald Barrett at UC Berkeley is currently studying the diets of birds from the Sonoma County area, as well as identifying any infectious agents the birds may be carrying (Stienstra 2003).

    In addition to their possible danger to endangered native species, wild turkeys have begun to have a negative effect on agriculture.  Grape farmers in Sonoma and Napa counties have discovered that flocks of wild turkeys are eating wine grapes.  The birds seem to have an ability to tell when the grapes are perfectly ripe for eating, which is usually just before they would be harvested.  This has caused some farmers to take up arms, literally, against the economic loss posed by the birds (Tempest 2003).

    The National Wild Turkey Federation (NWTF) has been largely responsible for both reintroducing wild turkeys to their native range and introducing them in states outside of their native range.  Early in the mid-1900's, overall numbers of wild turkeys were low, due to habitat destruction and excessive hunting of the bird.  Some credit the NWTF with saving the bird from extinction, even though the organization is primarily a hunters group.  The Federation refutes claims that wild turkeys are eating grape harvests and may be feeding on endangered species, although they have presented no scientifically credible evidence to support their statements (Tempest 2003).

    Despite the fact that it is the CDFG's role to "protect and preserve all native species of fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals, invertebrates and plants, and their habitats, threatened with extinction; or those experiencing a significant decline which, if not halted, would lead to a threatened or endangered designation (Fish and Game Code 2003)," the Department has done very little research into the environmental impacts of wild turkeys.  Traditionally, the CDFG has been very supportive of the goals of the hunting and fishing lobby.  The nature of the Department has changed over the years, as environmental issues have become more of a concern and protective measures have been adopted to prevent species extinction.  At the same time, hunters and fishermen have become an increasingly smaller segment of the overall population.  As such, some consider it detrimental to the Department's mission to be introducing non-native species that could increase the peril to endangered plants and animals.

    Environmental groups have taken a stance against the introduction of any more wild turkeys in California.  In 1996, the CDFG planned to release turkeys in San Diego County.  A lawsuit was filed by the California Native Plant Society and the Save Our Ranchlands and Forest group, stopping the plan from being implemented (Tempest 2003).  In their lawsuit, these groups cited the lack of scientific data in regards to the impact of wild turkeys on native flora and fauna.

    The CDFG's most recent planned release of wild turkeys was stopped largely due to the opposition from the Department of Parks and Recreation (DPR).  While turkeys are not released on state park lands, and release sites are chosen to minimize the possibility of turkeys ending up in state parks, over time many flocks of wild turkeys have established themselves in state parks.  By law, state park officials are responsible for protecting the native species within park boundaries.  Invasive turkeys that are detrimental to these native species are problematic for park officials because hunting is illegal within state parks (Fish and Game Code 2003).  The DPR must therefore resort to trapping and relocating the wild turkeys, which is costly and time-consuming.

    At Annadel State Park in Sonoma County, there are three species that are federally listed as endangered or threatened: California Red-legged Frog (Rana aurora draytonii ), Sonoma Alopecurus (Alopecurus aequalis  var. sonomensis ), and Many-flowered Navarretia (Navarretia leucocephala  ssp. plieantha ).  Annadel is in prime wild turkey habitat, as witnessed by the flocks that have become established there in the last few years.  State park ecologists are studying the effects of wild turkeys on the ecosystem, attempting to quantify any detrimental qualities.  The DPR has funded Dr. Barrett's research on the wild turkey's diet (Stienstra 2003).

California Red-legged Frog Photo by Bill Palmer	Sonoma Alopecurus Photo by Doreen L. Smith	Many-flowered Navarretia Photo by Dean Taylor

    When first presented with the dichotomy of a state agency taking actions that were in potential conflict with its prescribed duties, it was obvious that a great deal of background information would be needed in order to understand the issues.  The results of this research were presented earlier in this paper.  The central question stemming from this research is: do wild turkeys eat endangered California species?

    This is not a question that can be answered by a GIS practitioner.  However, there is a component of this question which can be addressed, and that is the issue as to whether wild turkeys are occupying the same habitat as endangered species.  If, in fact, wild turkeys are not even in the same area as endangered species, then the question as to whether they might eat the endangered species becomes moot.

    The first step in addressing this question was to gather existing data to assess the spatial relationship of the wild turkeys and endangered species.  The California Natural Diversity Database (CNDDB) tracks the known locations of endangered and threatened plant and animal species native to California.  The California Wildlife Habitat Relationships System (CWHR) contains range data for four taxonomic groups of animals in California: mammals, amphibians, reptiles, and birds.  These animals are both native and non-native.  Both of these datasets are maintained by the California Department of Fish and Game.

    The CNDDB is continually updated as new data is received, making the information contained within it as up-to-date as can be.  The spatial data is available as an ESRI shapefile, at a scale of 1:24,000.  Unfortunately, the data is not complete.  Only known locations for a species are mapped; it is entirely possible that a species exists in other locations that are not known.

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    The various vector datasets that comprise range maps for the CWHR species are updated infrequently.  The latest update for any of these range maps was performed in January of 1999.  The CWHR range map for the wild turkey was last updated in August of 1995.  This map was originally created at 1:5,000,000 scale, and is available as an ArcInfo coverage.  An effort is currently underway to update these datasets, but the results of this project are not yet available.

    Because the CWHR wild turkey range data is out-dated and small scale, more current and larger scale data was desired.  A 2003 range map was found in the CDFG's Strategic Plan for Wild Turkey Management.  Although this map was also small scale, it was decided to digitize it to obtain more accurate range data.

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    A graphic of the map was georeferenced in ArcMap by first auto-adjusting the image to the display size, and then setting seven control points around the boundary of the state and using an Affine transformation to "rubber-sheet" the image to the proper coordinates.  This image was then used to create a new polygon shapefile that depicts the 2003 range of the wild turkey, as determined by CDFG wildlife biologists.  Biologists determined the bird's range by combining field observations with known preferred habitat and "filling in the gaps."  Although this introduced at least three sources of error into the resulting range map (range determination errors, georeferencing errors, and digitizing errors), it is felt that this new map more accurately reflects the wild turkey's current range in California than the CWHR range map.

    A comparison of the CNDDB data with the digitized range map showed that a large number of threatened and endangered species existed within the wild turkey's range.  Because of the large number of species, it was decided to focus on those species that are ranked "S1" and "S2" by the CNDDB biologists.  This SRANK value indicates the degree of rarity and endangerment for a species.  These species are "rare" in that there are few of them or they exist in a very limited area.  An additional filter was applied to select only the "Very threatened" and "Threatened" species.

SRANK	Description
S1	Less than 6 Element Occurrences (EOs) OR less than 1,000 individuals OR less than 2,000 acres.
S1.1	Very threatened
S1.2	Threatened
S1.3	No current threats known
S2	6 - 20 EOs OR 1,000 to 3,000 individuals OR 2,000 to 10,000 acres.
S2.1	Very threatened
S2.2	Threatened
S2.3	No current threats known
S3	21 - 100 EOs OR 3,000 to 10,000 individuals OR 10,000 to 50,000 acres.
S3.1	Very threatened
S3.2	Threatened
S3.3	No current threats known
S4	Apparently secure within California; this rank is clearly lower than S3 but factors exist to cause some concern; i.e., there is some threat, or somewhat narrow habitat.
S5	Demonstrably secure to ineradicable in California.  NO THREAT RANK.
SH	All sites as historical; the element has not been seen for at least 20 years, but suitable habitat still exists.
SX	All sites are extirpated; this element is extinct in the wild.

    In order to be able to effectively gather some field data, a decision was made to spatially restrict the study area to a part of Sonoma County.  The Sonoma County area is of particular interest because:

• it is one of the locations of early and on-going turkey introductions,
• there are many endangered species there,
• state parks that are affected by wild turkeys are in the area,
• there are many vineyards in Sonoma and Napa counties, and
• a University of California, Berkeley researcher is studying the diets of wild turkeys there.

    A Garmin GPS 12XL receiver was used to gather geographic coordinates in the field.  The Garmin receiver is accurate to within 15 meters (49 feet).  The data was collected in decimal degrees using a NAD27 datum.  Over six hours were spent in the eastern part of Annadel State Park, searching for positive occurrences of wild turkeys.  After data collection, the data was transferred to a computer.  Lacking a cable to transfer the data digitally from the Garmin, the coordinates and their identifiers were simply typed into Excel and saved as a dBASE file.  A point shapefile was then created by using ArcView to create an event theme from the data table.

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    In attempting to determine the proximity of wild turkeys to the habitats of threatened and endangered species, the first result of data gathering was range data for the wild turkey.  Spatial data in the form of a shapefile depicts the current known range of wild turkeys in California.  It is shown here as a map of California so that the reader can get a sense of how extensive the introductions of this non-native bird have been.  The potential range indicated on the map signifies areas of the state where turkeys have been released, but it is not currently known whether they have become established or not.  There is a high probability that they have, but field surveys would need to be done to verify this.

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    The first result of analyzing the spatial data was a determination of which S1 and S2 state-ranked species were in wild turkey range.  Because of the large number of S1/S2 species within the wild turkey's range, a map of the entire state would be difficult to view; the sheer number of features would obscure details.  In order to provide a sense of the number of species involved, a map showing the three largest state parks in Sonoma County was created, and is provided here.  This map also shows one of the USFWS California Red-legged Frog Recovery Plan areas.

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    The next result stemmed from a narrowing of focus, based on an analysis of the spatial data and an awareness of other issues with wild turkeys in the Sonoma area, particularly Annadel State Park.  To provide a visual sense of the affected S1/S2 species in the park, a map showing the locations of these species and their names was prepared.  There are 13 different S1/S2 species within the wild turkey's range in and around Annadel State Park.  This map was used to choose an area for conducting a survey for wild turkeys.

    The results of the field survey are shown in the following table.  This data was collected with a GPS receiver.  Each coordinate was given an identifier in the Garmin unit, and a notation was made for that coordinate in a notebook.  Coordinate data was captured as decimal degrees because it was felt that decimal degrees would be the easiest to use in creating a shapefile for use in ArcView and/or ArcMap.

ID	LONG_DD	LAT_DD	DESC
CAR	122.5742778	38.4175833	Parking lot.
DEER1	122.5810000	38.4115278	Small doe with white rump.
FROG1	122.5936389	38.4123333	Lots of frog song, at least 4 frogs.
HARE1	122.5972778	38.4110000	Two rabbits, one let me get within 20 feet.
PEN1	122.6011944	38.4097222	Enclosure, looks like something is driven in and then door/cover is shut.
SALM1	122.5779722	38.4146667	2 inch long newt with brown back and orange belly. Coast range newt or red-bellied newt.
SALM2	122.5821944	38.4111111	5 inch long newt with brown back and orange belly. Coast range newt or red-bellied newt.
SIGN1	122.5956944	38.4091111	Sign next to marsh about red-legged frog.
SLUG1	122.5876389	38.4045278	4 inch long banana slug.
SLUG2	122.5890000	38.4062778	4 inch long banana slug.

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    The final result of the project's analysis is a map showing the locations of field observations in the eastern portion of Annadel State Park.  On this map, only species listed by the USFWS as threatened or endangered are shown.  It was decided to limit the map to these three species because this is the only location where they are known to exist around Annadel State Park, making them rare in this area.  The rationale for the map is to present the field observations in the context of the habitats of these federally listed species.

    The intent of this project was to look at some of the issues involved with the introduction of an exotic species by an organization that is dedicated to protecting native plants and animals.  To gain an appreciation of the potential impacts, an attempt was made to determine whether or not wild turkeys actually exist in the habitats of endangered and threatened native species.  The eastern part of Annadel State Park was chosen for the study area, based on its existence within purported wild turkey range and issues with their possible presence in a state park.

    Superficially, this project was successful.  At the outset, current range data for the wild turkey proved to be impossible to find as spatial data.  However, an image of the wild turkey's current range was successfully georeferenced and converted to vector spatial data.  This process was remarkably easy to accomplish with ArcMap.  The range data was then used to determine which critical species are currently within the wild turkey's range.  In ArcMap, this was accomplished by selecting features in the CNDDB spatial data that intersected the range data.

    Unfortunately, the results of this analysis were not conclusive.  The range data that was used is a composite of field observations and "best guesses" as to where the wild turkey exists in the state today.  This means that for any given location within the purported range of the bird, it may not actually occur.  From this initial analysis it may appear  that there are potential impacts on native species, but this is not necessarily the case if the wild turkey is not actually in the same habitat as the threatened and endangered natives.

    To mitigate for this flaw in the available data, an attempt was made to collect field data in the study area.  This proved to be the most difficult part of the project, and a greater appreciation for the work of field biologists was acquired by the project staff.  Although the field survey was approached with great confidence in a successful outcome, there were no positive sightings of wild turkeys in the area of concern, Annadel State Park.  Several hours were spent hiking across rugged terrain, and data points were collected for other species in the area, but no data points were collected for wild turkeys.  This served to undermine the thesis that wild turkeys are potentially damaging to native species, particularly in the area around Annadel State Park.

    In the absence of field data, a decision was made to pursue anecdotal data for the presence of wild turkeys in Annadel State Park.  Dr. Reginald Barrett at UC Berkeley was contacted to find out if wild turkeys had been taken from around the Ledson Marsh area of the park as part of his research into the wild turkey's diet.  Dr. Barrett stated that 25 wild turkeys had been taken in Annadel State Park as of the beginning of December 2003, and that some of these had come from the Ledson Marsh area.  His research team has yet to analyze the birds; they are waiting until they have collected specimens for a full year before analyzing dietary habits, which are subject to seasonal changes over the course of a year.

    The project at UC Berkeley, which is being funded by the Department of Parks and Recreation, will take two years to complete and will result in a management plan for wild turkeys in state parks.  Preliminary results for this project, an analysis of which plants and animals are being eaten by wild turkeys, will not be known for another year.  It is impossible to state at this point which native species are being consumed by wild turkeys.  Therefore, we cannot determine whether or not turkeys are having a negative impact on threatened and endangered species.

    Although information was obtained which indicates that wild turkeys do indeed exist in the Ledson Marsh area of Annadel State Park, where there are three species listed by the USFWS as threatened or endangered, specific coordinates were not obtained.  As such, this project cannot definitively state that wild turkeys occupy the same habitats as the listed species.  However, given the anecdotal evidence and the observed suitability of habitat for wild turkeys in the Ledson Marsh area (open space near wooded coverage), it would appear that turkeys are present there.

    The project staff recommends that additional spatial and temporal data be gathered in the Ledson Marsh area of Annadel State Park.  The goal of these field surveys would be to obtain coordinates for positive sightings of wild turkeys, confirming the anecdotal evidence of their presence.  In addition, an attempt should be made to determine the frequency and duration of their visits to the area.  This temporal data would allow a better analysis of the wild turkey's potential impact to the listed species there.

    At present, the proponents for introducing wild turkeys in California, a group which consists mainly of the National Wild Turkey Federation and certain segments of the CDFG, do not present any convincing scientific reasons for doing so.  Their main arguments are that: there existed in California at one time (the Pleistocene Epoch) a relative of the wild turkey, and contemporary wild turkeys have not been proven to have a detrimental effect on any native endangered species.  The opponents to wild turkey introductions are mainly organizations, such as the California Native Plant Society, that are attempting to ensure the continuing biodiversity of the state of California.  These groups have adopted, in effect, the precautionary principle: we don't know that there is any harm from introducing wild turkeys, so the safest course of action is to assume that there is and not allow any further introductions until all potential impacts are known.

    Because wild turkeys have become established throughout such a wide area of the state, it will be virtually impossible to eradicate them.  Until we know more about the impacts of wild turkeys on native species, additional introductions of the bird should be discontinued.  Once more research has been conducted and an analysis of the bird's impacts can be concluded, a comprehensive management plan can be created.

California Department of Fish and Game,  2003.  California Natural Diversity Database.  Sacramento, CA.

California Department of Fish and Game and California Interagency Wildlife Task Group,  2002.  California Wildlife Habitat Relationships System.  Sacramento, CA.

DeMers, Michael N.,  2003.  Fundamentals of Geographic Information Systems, 2nd Edition.  Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.  636 pp.

Fish and Game Code,  2003.  LawTech Publishing Company, Ltd.  San Clemente, CA.

Gardner, Scott,  2002.  Wild Turkey Draft Environmental Impact Report.  Department of Fish and Game.

Lewis, James C.,  1973.  The World of the Wild Turkey.  Philadelphia, PA: J.B. Lippencott Co.  158 pp.

Schorger, A. W.,  1966.  The Wild Turkey: Its History and Domestication.  Norman:University of Oklahoma Press.  625 pp.

Stienstra, Tom,  "Turkey-shooting program gives a scare."  San Francisco Chronicle.  3 Dec. 2003.

Tempest, Rone,  "Ravenous Wild Turkeys Spur Vintners' Gripes of Wrath."  Los Angeles Times.  29 Oct. 2003.

California Native Plant Society

California State Parks: Annadel State Park

Department of Fish and Game Wild Turkey Draft Environmental Impact Report, 2002

Department of Fish and Game Strategic Plan for Wild Turkey Management, 2003

National Wild Turkey Federation

United States Fish and Wildlife Service: California Red-legged Frog

Wild Turkey Zone